Diann Dawson reminded us about an earlier conference on African American marriage in the 1950s. “Now, it’s time to get something done.” With 27 states and the District of Columbia represented here, this meeting will be a beginning conversation to identify what is missing in research about promoting and supporting healthy marriage.
Welcome from the “Southern part of heaven.” This conference is about inclusion. We are struck by the complexity of the issues on the agenda, pleased to have scholars and practitioners together.
It is important that UNC is a co-sponsor of this conference; as a public university we feel a moral obligation to tackle tough issues. 25% of North Carolina’s population and 12–13% of students are African American. Fewer than 25% of those are black males. Yet, UNC has the highest percentage of African American students among Research 1 universities in the country. The conference also showcases the intellectual capacity of researchers in this area. There is a charge to conference participants to lead the research agenda and shape practices.
Welcome on behalf of the Jordan Institute for Families. We urge participants to take something back to their communities to share, and to build a network of research and practice in order to make a difference in the lives of children and families.
The Annie E. Casey Foundation is a co-sponsor of this conference. Founded by Jim Casey of United Parcel Service in honor of his mother, the Foundation focuses on a wide range of services that support parents and communities to raise healthy children, and views the Healthy Marriage Initiative from this perspective.
The research is clear and we can say with conviction that marriage matters to Black Americans. Speaking from the heart…we are at a critical moment in African American history with the breakdown of the Black family, and increasing numbers of Black children being born out of wedlock, there is a new determination and vigilance to rebuild the institution of marriage in African American culture within the tradition of spirituality and survival, and reflective of the commitment to social justice. Dr. Malone-Colon shared results from, “The Consequences of Marriage for African Americans,” a comprehensive literature review—http://www.americanvalues.org/html/consequences.htm—indicating that strong, healthy, stable Black families will foster strong children and communities. Examples of the positive impact of marriage for African Americans include: shaping child well-being through promoting infant health, protecting children against early sexual experiences and pregnancy; increasing the level of father involvement; economic well-being and home ownership; and overall improved health and happiness.
Obie Clayton reported on a recent survey of African American men conducted by the Washington Post in collaboration with the Kaiser Family Foundation and Harvard University. When asked to identify what is important in their lives, respondents replied that there is a desire for children, but not always in the context of marriage. Some factors may include: a) women are often breadwinners and are less likely to be solely dependent on the father as provider; and b) our culture socializes people to view marriage as less binding in the age of divorce and infidelity.
Research indicates that children growing up in 1-parent households do not fare as well as those growing up in 2-parent households. Controlling for other factors, the largest predictor of success for children seems to be growing up in a 2-parent household. In addition, research has shown that the father’s role in nurturing children is as important as the mother’s, particularly for girls.
2000 census data show that the structure of African American families is improving somewhat after years of deterioration prior to 1995. For example, the proportion of African American children in 2-parent families has increased from 34.8% to 38.9%.
Robert Franklin summarized findings of a 2003 Annie E. Casey Foundation survey of clergy on marriage in African American culture http://www.aecf.org/publications/data/marriage_book.pdf. Data collection methods included focus groups, key informant interviews, and field interviews. Key findings included the following:
Ann Wimberly is the author of Keep it Real: Working with Today’s Black Youth; Edward Wimberly is the author of, Recalling Our Own Stories: Spiritual Renewal for Religious Caregivers. The work of Cornell West was also cited, including Race Matters and The War Against the Families.
Young people want to know stories of successful marriages. Socialization occurs in families, but young people also receive messages from other sources (including the media) which present competing values and life paths. We risk losing the positive mediating structures (school, neighborhoods, church) that stand between individuals and the wider culture—the loss of village—and replacing these with such negative mediating structures as gangs.
“Techno-media” has taken over the ability of families to provide care and nurture to their young. Violence, sex, and crime have become forms of consumer enticement. Parents may give up because culture supports the values of the market place over those of nurturance. Gangsta-rap’s destructive influence crosses the boundary of decency, driving constructions of masculinity and femininity. How is it possible to translate that language into “husbands and wives, mothers and fathers?” Radio stations geared toward African Americans are becoming more liberal and are undermining African American values. We as leaders must (1) know what we want to share; (2) Be grateful for youths’ critiques of us; (3) Move from conversation to mentoring; and (4) Include parental figures. The Youth Hope Builders Academy (YHBA) seeks to provide this leadership: http://youthshopebuildersacademy.blogspot.com/
Mr. Johnson shared some of his personal journey and lessons learned. He observed that often, the same things that youth know are wrong are those things that attract them. The best way to support youth to make healthy choices is through stories, and “sharing secrets.” The father must be “brought in” to involvement with the family, so that they can teach their own sons and daughters.
Described his 3–5 year Rites of Passage program that is detailed on his website, http://www.smartmarriages.com/lee.johnson.html Described 10 key “rites of passage” on the journey to full adulthood:
Mrs. Jordan shared that building a healthy marriage takes commitment, partnership, and leadership in the home. She described the ingredients of the healthy family—principles from her book Families First:
Mrs. Jordan further described her work for the past 7 years with the James Jordan Family Center. Focusing on an at-risk elementary school, she has worked with families through four programs: Vision for Families; Family Night; Mentoring Program; and Reading Together.
For thousands of years, healthy marriages have been the basis of healthy families, helping children to become adults of character. Everyone across the political spectrum agrees on the advantages of a household with 2 loving parents. There is often increased risk of poor outcomes for children in other kinds of families, although not 100% of the time. “We don’t abandon kids in single-parent households, we provide help to them.”
In addition to understanding what the Healthy Marriage Initiative IS about, It is important to understand what it is NOT about:
The AAHMI is both timely and important. There is a myth that marriage has “disappeared” among African Americans. Yet, polls support the continuing importance of marriage as a goal. African Americans have much to gain from healthy marriages; the gains for African American children are even greater than for children of other races. Finally, welfare reform is ultimately about improving conditions for children. Healthy marriage initiatives can only contribute to the success of welfare reform.
Bradford Wilcox shared the following observations from his research: African American men and women are more likely than White men and women to have children by more than one partner. The deinstitutionalization of courtship and marriage has hit African Americans the hardest. Historically, there have been 3 types of relationship models:
Infidelity has been most common among poor and wealthy African American men, and less likely among middle class men. Some of the cultural factors contributing to marriage infidelity include:
Audrey Chapman spoke from her point of view as a therapist for couples, married or not, who are dealing with infidelity. While she is overwhelmed with number of people who call for help across socioeconomic groups (with nearly as many calls from men as women), “I feel hopeful.”
Infidelity is a “breaking of trust.” For the unfaithful partner, it is the result of a deep- seated personality disorder. It can also be related to obsessive-compulsive &/or addictive disorders. “Pursuit behavior” fills an emotional void. Ms. Chapman resented a case study of an African American upper middle class couple where the husband was unfaithful, to illustrate couples work in 3 phases:
Gerald Durley shared from a faith perspective that if changes are to occur, we must work with physical, mental and spiritual aspects of the relationship. Infidelity destroys families. “MESS=misery and evil side by side.” Resetting values and standards that are broken is a spiritual problem. The unfaithful need to change themselves. Commitment to marriage is a job. Seduction is an addictive plan.
Domestic violence is antithetical to healthy marriage. It is more than a family affair, however. It is woven in the fabric of our heritage, based on a belief in a man’s right to control his wife with violence. Fortunately, it has moved from a private family matter to a social issue with ever-better interventions developed. However, the African American community does not access domestic violence services as much as other groups. It seems to be more accepted in African American community. Police reports of domestic violence are fewer for African Americans than for Hispanic and Caucasian women; it is estimated that the actual incidence of domestic violence among African Americans is three times higher than is reported.
Addiction is a key factor in domestic violence. Ms. Lewis described domestic violence as a dance, with the perpetrator as victim and victim as chief enabler. Both need intervention. Domestic violence is learned behavior, and this behavior can be “unlearned” through intervention. Service providers should be aware of the warning signs and behavioral indicators of domestic violence in both parents and children. Domestic violence services are crisis-oriented, and are often less effective in the long term. There is a need to follow up through education, treatment, and referral.
Tanya Lovelace described the Women of Color Network (http://womenofcolornetwork.org), providing consultation to advocates working in domestic violence, focusing in particular on Asian, Hispanic, and African American communities. “Create a fabric around these communities that will help heal from the ground up.”
Sharing information about domestic violence can perpetuate stereotypes of African American men. There is a need to look at domestic violence services differently. Advocates need to look like the victims, to share information and services on flexible schedule (allow tardiness), with cultural and socioeconomic sensitivity. “Truly serve and honor those you serve.”
There is a need to look at healthy relationships and not just healthy marriages. It is a myth that only weak black women get beaten. Historically, stronger women have been the targets. There is a process of enslavement, whereby violence begins and increases over time. Black women may stay in abusive relationships because they do not feel they can have a good relationship and so feel trapped. “Holding onto/standing by your man. Keeping the peace.”
Handouts from the session: The Equality Wheel, Domestic Violence Facts
Dr. Orthner described the importance of father engagement and the rapid decline in couple relationships and co-parenting: from 100% at conception, to 82% romantically involved at birth, to 49% of couples living together, with 72% of men and 55% of women wishing to marry the other parent. Over time these percentages continue to decrease. We need to focus on increasing services and training for low-income black men—fathers want services from mentors with similar life experiences provided in a trusted home or organization within a community (such as churches, schools, health clinics).
Hillard Pouncy observed that the decline in marriage drives many other problems—children raised outside of intact marriages are significantly more likely than other children to use drugs, drop out of school or commit crimes, suffer from depression, and commit or consider suicide. Programs and demonstrations such as Kyle-Texas and Amity-California have lowered recidivism among substance abuse ex-offender populations by as much as 27%; Forensic Assertive Community Treatment (FACT) has been able to reduce recidivism among the mentally ill significantly.
Young black men are trying to find their place in this society—many are uneducated, unemployed, unmarried, and disassociated from their children. They are stereotyped as gang bangers, drug dealers, chronic underachievers, and menaces to society. Yet many young black men feed those stereotypes with their own actions—through fear and ignorance many adopt the thug life style.
To reverse this mindset, Scholar Henry Louis Gates states that the following are needed: 1) personal responsibility; 2) government obligation; and 3) successful Blacks must mentor young Black men. A value shift is needed to stress the importance of education, economics, family, marriage, and community.
Daniel Bennett presented findings from his CDC study of violent dating behavior among African American youth:
Waldo Johnson observed that marriage may not necessarily benefit all. For example, in high conflict families marriage is not good for children. In addition, the cohabitation literature may not be conclusive as cohabitation research has been conducted largely with upper SES couples.
In light of the above, we would do well to focus on building strong parent relationships. The Fragile Families study found that 50% of families were still in romantic cohabitating relationships after one year, but this percentage decreased over time. There has not been enough research on how to strengthen parents so that child wellbeing will improve.
Comprehensive marriage enrichment programs are expensive, but their outcomes are positive. However, many factors can inhibit positive outcomes for African American males in relationships, including multiple risk factors for poor health (poverty, violence, and the like), incarceration and barriers to reentry, and multiple-partner parenting.
Further research and practice must focus on the African American family—specifically, multiple partner parents, reaching young African American males before they become fathers, as well as employment and social supports no matter what the family structure might be.
Dr. Hairston noted that in some states, African American men comprise nearly 70% of the prison population. She reported findings of a study conducted with Dr. William Oliver, focusing on African American women with male partners in prison. Focus groups and interviews regarding the women’s experiences yielded the following findings:
Rev. Slack described an 8-week post-incarceration intervention for men, focusing on reclaiming of the “fathering heritage:”
Pastor Johnson is a mentee of Rev. Slack. He shared his guiding principles, based on his name:
T: Trust yourself
E: Expect to win
R: Risk it all
R: Realize potential
E: Eliminate the negative
L: Learn from others
L: Listen
Dr. Green discussed the “incarceration mindset,” characterized by withdrawal from the outside world. This can makes incarceration easier and allow the man to focus on immediate survival issues. The man may want to “shed” romantic relationships due to fear of infidelity.
He found that the majority of men with whom he worked committed crimes related to getting money. He proposed that the faith community be involved in the issue of incarceration on several levels, including (a) pre-sentencing, in terms of providing linkages and forging the bond with the church, and (b) mentoring of women who want to leave the relationship.
Mr. Jones provided an overview of the Center for Fathers, Families and Workforce Development (CFWD), founded in Baltimore in 1999. The CFWD, undertakes “street outreach” with a goal of connecting fathers and families, and interacts with some 1,700 low-income men and women each year, to assisting them to regain personal power to benefit their families and communities.
CFWD is needed in Baltimore as 32% of African American males are involved in the justice system and 77% of African American males drop out of school. Center components include:
Mr. Jones described development of the Exploring Relationships and Marriage with Fragile Families Curricula by “experts” along with community partners and clients. The curricula contain separate program topics for fathers, mothers, and couples.
Andrew Lyke, stated that the Archdiocese of Chicago Family Ministries works with 370 congregations that perform some 9,000 weddings per year. He works with a coalition for at-risk married couples, a collaborative effort with the Illinois State Department of Health, Catholic Charities, and the Administration for Children and Families, that addresses specific concerns of fragile families.
Ms. Lyke explained that the coalition serving at-risk married couples uses the Exploring Relationships and Marriage with Fragile Families Curricula, including sessions to reinforce the value of each participant. Classes are small/intimate and child care and meals are provided; there is a high participant retention rate. The coalition recruits participant couples around the “magic moment” surrounding the birth of the child.
Bradford Wilcox pointed to an essential paradox regarding Black marriage: We know that our religion and religious beliefs encourage marriage; and we know that African Americans (especially women) are often more connected to their religions than other races. However, rates of marriage are lower among African Americans.
The Black church does not provide a consistent message about marriage and sexuality and is often stuck in traditionalism. However, we do know that the church promotes an essential code of decency, and that the racial divide in marriages would be even greater were it not for the influence of the church.
Kenneth Johnson shared some key issues that frame the manner in which the Black church addresses issues of marriage:
Ms. Lovelace shared information about the Women of Color Network (http://womenofcolornetwork.org), focusing on domestic violence and violence prevention across the US. She noted that 85% of all domestic violence toward women involves a woman who was abused as a child or adolescent. Another useful website is www.vawnet.org
Discussed the “hip-hop nation” reaching back to the early 70s. In its pure sense, this was simply a celebration of “street happenings.” Currently, though, pop-culture rap has focused on what is marketable. Hip-hop has been “hijacked.”
Ms. Lovelace discussed dating violence: “actual or threatened violence against a current or former dating partner.” Intimate violence can be even more difficult for adolescents because they lack the adult’s access to resources, AND they often have a sense of invincibility.
Research indicates that 20% of teen girls report some sort of physical violence in their relationships. While boys’ responses to violence are often anger or humor, those of girls are more often fear and emotional hurt. Observed that in popular culture, boys’ clothing is become larger, more layered, and girls’ is becoming smaller and more exposed.
Mr. Baskerville noted the significant influence of alcohol on relationship violence and unwanted pregnancy. It is important for boys to be able to grapple with an understanding of risk and an ability to visualize the rewards of abstinence. Key issues include the following:
Dr. Orthner described the importance of father engagement and the rapid decline in couple relationships and co-parenting: from 100% at conception, to 82% romantically involved at birth, to 49% of couples living together, with 72% of men and 55% of women wishing to marry the other parent. Over time these percentages continue to decrease.
We need to focus on increasing services and training for low-income black men—fathers want services from mentors with similar life experiences provided in a trusted home or organization within a community (such as churches, schools, health clinics).
Hillard Pouncy observed that the decline in marriage drives many other problems—children raised outside of intact marriages are significantly more likely than other children to use drugs, drop out of school or commit crimes, suffer from depression, and commit or consider suicide.
Programs and demonstrations such as Kyle-Texas and Amity-California have lowered recidivism among substance abuse ex-offender populations by as much as 27%; Forensic Assertive Community Treatment (FACT) has been able to reduce recidivism among the mentally ill significantly.
Charles Johnson likened Black males to an “endangered species,” citing the following information:
The concern is that If we do not act then Black men will cease to exist; they are the most vilified characters in America. Think about things in the fabric of this country that contribute to the downfall of the Black man—for example, the difference in prison sentences for crack (minority crime) versus cocaine (white drug). What are solutions?
We must pull from the historical strength of forefathers. Most social service users are males, while most providers are females. Boys need to have male role models to teach them important lessons about manhood and fatherhood. We must provide intervention—introduce boys to men. When men are absent from boys’ lives, boys masquerade as men. They may believe that they must be violent to earn respect. They may believe that they must be sexually active.
Daniel Bennett presented findings from his CDC study of violent dating behavior among African American youth:
Waldo Johnson observed that marriage may not necessarily benefit all. For example, in high conflict families marriage is not good for children. In addition, the cohabitation literature may not be conclusive as cohabitation research has been conducted largely with upper SES couples.
In light of the above, we would do well to focus on building strong parent relationships. The Fragile Families study found that 50% of families were still in romantic cohabitating relationships after one year, but this percentage decreased over time. There has not been enough research on how to strengthen parents so that child wellbeing will improve.
Comprehensive marriage enrichment programs are expensive, but their outcomes are positive. However, many factors can inhibit positive outcomes for African American males in relationships, including multiple risk factors for poor health (poverty, violence, and the like), incarceration and barriers to reentry, and multiple-partner parenting.
Further research and practice must focus on the African American family—specifically, multiple partner parents, reaching young African American males before they become fathers, as well as employment and social supports no matter what the family structure might be.
Dr. Hairston noted that in some states, African American men comprise nearly 70% of the prison population. She reported findings of a study conducted with Dr. William Oliver, focusing on African American women with male partners in prison. Focus groups and interviews regarding the women’s experiences yielded the following findings:
Rev. Slack described an 8-week post-incarceration intervention for men, focusing on reclaiming of the “fathering heritage”:
Pastor Johnson is a mentee of Rev. Slack. He shared his guiding principles, based on his name:
T: Trust yourself
E: Expect to win
R: Risk it all
R: Realize potential
E: Eliminate the negative
L: Learn from others
L: Listen
Dr. Blackman provided an overview of social conditions affecting African American marriages:
She Indicated that a cornerstone of a strong, stable, resilient family is the spousal/parental subsystem which is committed to making sacrifices for the benefit of children, and provided a description of the African American Marriage Enrichment Program in 1992. Research results show that 94% of participants were satisfied with the curriculum.
The curriculum can be found on the African American Family Life Education website: http://www.AAFLE.org. Those interested in teaching the curriculum can become a Certified Family Life Educator through the National Council on Family Relations: http://www.ncfr.org.
Debbie Segler presented the Family and Community Partnerships for Head Start’s overall goals and approaches:
She provided examples of the programs and services:
Additional information about the programs and services of the Barbara Bush Parent Center Head Start program can be found at the following website: http://www.csisd.org/intro.php?BODY=gibarbush&MENU=gi
Dr. Lambert explained that the mission of the Indiana Community Healthy Marriage and Family Coalition is to identify and promote the value of healthy marriages and vibrant families. The Coalition has four primary goals:
Dr. Lambert stated that the Coalition intends to strengthen family ties through networking. They began by assessing partnering agencies (faith-based organizations, community organizations, state agency).
She discussed the implementation of a Compassion Capital Fund Targeted Capacity Project that has a goal to reach diverse populations with culturally competent curriculum such as the African American Marriage Enrichment Program. The Coalition would also like to provide marriage education resources for the Hispanic community.
Dr. Kaye indicated that a key question is whether cognitive development is influenced directly by the intact family, or that intact families have less poverty and other risk factors, thereby reducing the risk of poor cognitive development. There is an emotional debate about how to influence child development and there is concern that policy could be misguided by research on benefits of marriage. Rather, research needs to be driven by real concerns about how to help children.
The research is now very clear and we do know that fathers make a difference in terms of children’s development, beyond the economic value of the paycheck. We also know that paternal engagement is higher within married families. Intervention with parents is crucial, especially regarding the mental health of both mother and father.
Dr. Shears stated that it is a myth that the African American matriarchal family structure has been a positive force in the development of boys and men. The Black family has adapted to the American culture; African American men have been stripped of their masculinity and dehumanized. Currently, 60% of poor children live with a never-married woman; in contemporary society, women often marry early, divorce early, have children early.
Cassandra Codes-Johnson discussed the Building Strong Families (BSF) program (http://www.buildingstrongfamilies.info/), which builds on “magic moments” of child birth to foster healthy relationships and strong marriages. The program focuses on pregnant women and parents of infants (0–3 months), targeting low income couples over 18 years of age who are married or romantically involved. Couples are screened out for domestic violence. The evaluation has been in place for 5 years, with a control group consisting of the wait-listed program group. The research is based on the work of Daniel T. Lichter—Celebrating Couples. The work focuses on fostering equality in the relationship, building a sense of community, and crucial survival issues including employment, education, and housing.
Akilah Thomas presented Georgia’s Building Strong Families (BSF) program and discussed its differences from other BSFs.
From the child’s birth to 1 year, marital relationships can change negatively, providing the rationale for intervening early in the couple’s parenting lives. Recruitment occurs in hospitals and public health clinics, and through word of mouth, street outreach, and parenting programs.
The intervention consists of both family support services and marriage and relationships skill education. Each family works with a “family coordinator” who provides personalized support and encourages them to stay with the program if their motivation lags. Important incentives are provided to enhance retention, including transportation, childcare, food, and small gifts.
Couples categorized as “Motivated,” “Hesitant,” “Perfect,” “Reluctant”
Dr. Mincy likened the Healthy Marriage Initiative to the Welfare to Work Initiative in terms of infusion into public policy.
The Fragile Families study (http://www.fragilefamilies.princeton.edu/about.asp) is a birth cohort survey which began in 1994, 2 years after implementation of welfare reform, to learn more about unmarried fathers. The focus has expanded to mothers and children and includes the quality and tenacity of relationships. The research team began studying children when they were 48 hours old, and is now collecting data on children who are 9 years old. 35–40% of the new parents in the study had already given birth to children with other partners—“Multiple Partner Fertility.”
The core research question is: How do parental circumstances affect the wellbeing of children? Reflections on what these data have told us thus far:
“Time, love and care” is a qualitative sub-study by Eaden, et al. There are a number of “influence domains”—forces that shape the marriage decision, both external and internal. These include social norms relative to marriage and family, definitions of masculinity, notions about “women’s agency” (ability to be self supporting, pursue self fulfillment), and norms around fertility and childrearing, whether or not birth “legitimized” by marriage.
We can claim to be members of a given community even if we have not fully realized its norms. Or, we may stop short because of cost to self. In this process, we may begin to set “lesser” norms and goals, and adapting to these may become an important part of identity.
American norms (often interpreted as goals) have been incorporated by African American people, but the African American community remains in some ways different and independent. Looking at census data about African American marriage historically and separating by class, we see that marriage rates for poor African Americans have always been low.
New norms are competing with old norms as the Healthy Marriage Initiative tries to increase marriage rates. Marriage creates a context in which men can achieve the markers of masculinity (achievement, responsibility, sacrifices for work, parenthood, relationship).
African American women have had to rely on themselves for support—had a set of freedoms that white women have not had. Dr. Mincy discussed women’s expectations and needs from marriage: Love, affection, care, security, independence, fidelity, children. These were contrasted with men’s expectations and needs: Sex, material possessions, respect of self and peers, children.
Historically, people of upper and to some extent middle SES have been able to meet these needs through marriage—with some compromise, however, of relationship quality and fidelity in exchange for security. Currently, however, marriage is being delayed to facilitate education, and there is less settling for poor relationship quality.
However, lower SES African Americans have been challenged to meet these needs through marriage. African American women have been historically more independent economically, so that premarital sex and childbearing did not necessarily lead to marriage (30% Black vs. 80% White). Thus, there is somewhat of a norm of single parenthood in African American communities. Economic circumstances can pose barriers to marriage—not wanting to walk into a situation in which failure is likely. There is a norm of cohabitation along the road to marriage.
The Charles’ presented their videos:
“The Marvin Charles Story” described the effect of Marvin’s adoption at a young age, and the devastation of not having his father in his life. The cycle of fatherlessness started with neither his mother nor father having fathers in their lives. These experiences directly and sometimes negatively affected his decisions throughout much of his younger years. Yet, his is a story of courage and determination. At the age of 43, in a remarkable act of will, he extricated himself from a downward spiral of substance abuse and homelessness to become a passionate, effective community leader.
The wedding video “Vow Renewal” is about the reconciliation of Marvin and Jeanette. It shows their ability to find the hope and strength to rise above their drug additions, put their family back together, and then shares the importance of healthy relationships and happiness in love with their children and community.
The Charles’ also explained that they are co-founders of DADS—it started in 1998 in their living room. Jeanette told of her own experiences with kids in her neighborhood—at the bus stop and everywhere—and the importance of her modeling healthy marriage to her own children and community. The DADS (Divine Alternative for Dads Services) video gave insight into the lives of two clients who found hope and encouragement through their program to become positive fathers and role models to their children. More information on DADS you may link to: www.aboutdads.org